Transformation of Marriage: Essay -- essays research papers

Abstract The marriage revolution has been a controversial issue since the dawn of time, and all that are and have been involved with â€Å"matrimony† are aware of the issues of the future. There can be no denying that the culture of marriage has changed. This very course is itself a great example of this fact. Much like any other sociological subject of any real concern, there are many â€Å"opinions† related to this issue. This paper will attempt to highlight marriage seen as the sociological transformation, marital erosion versus evolution, and why many people fail at marriage and what does it take to be successful in greater detail. This will allow you, the readers, to make up your own minds regarding this extremely multifaceted issue. Marriage seen as the sociological transformation â€Å"Couples today have much higher expectations. Between the 1950s and the 1970s American attitudes toward marriage changed dramatically as part of what has been called the â€Å"psychological revolution†Ã¢â‚¬â€a transformation in the way people look at marriage, parenthood, and their lives in general.† (Skolnick p.171) At first blush, marriage in America seems to have followed a similar course. Once a required rite of passage, seen as a genuine embodiment of shared values, it now serves as a game-show prize on Who Wants to Marry a Multimillionaire or a booby prize on My Big Fat Obnoxious Fiancà © — even though wedding ceremonies have created a "bridal-industrial complex," as Lee professor of economics Claudia Goldin calls the nearly $100-billion-a-year U.S. industry that outpaces even the movie business ($45 billion a year, including sales and rentals). (Hodder, 2004) Motivated by celebrity magazines and wedding planners, couples take on increasing ly elaborate spectacles that take years to plan and cost on average $20,000 to produce. When Love Story first appeared, our society was still extremely absorbed in a marriage culture that encouraged and supported getting and staying married. But inside a few years, the women's movement, the pill, the sexual revolution, and various economic shifts had permanently transformed that marriage-centric society. Marriage is not an endangered species, but it is surrounded by enormous difficulties that were not readily apparent 35 or 40 years ago. Divorce is a very serious presence — over 50 percent of our marriages end in di... ...;what has been will still be." Stay open to newness. Stay open to change.† (Nutt, 1990) References: Catholic Answers Inc. (2004). Special Report: Marriage. Retrieved April 8, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.catholic.com/library Gallagher, Maggie. (2002, July 13). How We Destroy Lasting Love. The Abolition of Marriage. Retrieved April 8, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9608/reviews/gold.html Hodder, Fraser H. (2004, Nov-Dec). The Future of Marriage. Harvard Magazine Volume 107, Number 2, Page 38. Retrieved April 8, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.hmag.harvard.edu/on-line/110491.html Grady Nutt. (July, 1990) Higher Praise. Retrieved April 8, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.praiselyrics.com/illustrations/marriage.htm Ross, Catherine E., Mirowsky, John & Goldsteen Karen. (1990). The Impact of the Family on Health. Journal of Marriage and the Family. Retrieved April 8, 2005 from the World Wide Web: Skolnick, Arlene S. & Skolnick Jerome H. (2005). Family in Transition. Boston: Pearson A&B. Waite, Linda & Gallagher, Maggie. (2001). The Case for Marriage. New York: Doubleday

Case Study Example

There are many product categories that could use the Scion marketing approach to apply to their businesses. Music industries market certain bands and artists to appeal more towards a younger age group, computer businesses market upcoming technology to younger audiences, as do phone company ices, websites, and home dcord. Choosing a target market is imperative for businesses in order to focus their advertising to whom they believe they would sell more product to.On the other hand, the tourism industry is marketing more towards people who are in the retirement age, and cars like vans and Subs focus more on middle age people who probably have children. Different products should be marketed towards who would be most interested, and in a lot of cases, this means businesses must gear their different products towards varying age groups. L]Decoupage buyers might view companies that their parents and grandparents are interested in as â€Å"not cool† or too mainstream for their own liki ng.Companies can overcome this, however, by changing their consisting in order to appeal to a newer generation. By creating new advertising campaigns and changing what kind of message they want their image to convey, companies have the ability to change the views of younger people. Myself, for example, always thought Subs were for married people with children, but Scion and other comma nines like Toyota have geared commercials to appeal to people my age. Toyota had myself fooled for a long time when they were marketing the Scion, and also thought it was a new brand.People from the newer generation look for products that are going to allow them to show their personality, and not just be another face among the crowd. Scion was smart to use the whole customization aspect of the Scion, especially because people my age and younger are always changing their cars to be what they want them to be, and not be what comes off the lot. If Scion doesn't find a way to still stay new, I do believe that the allure of having a Scion will eventually wear off.Businesses should always be ware that their target audiences are always changing, and must be on top of what it happening in the world in order to keep their businesses alive and growing. By promoting customer communications and knowing what the younger generations want in a product, Scion could possibly still keep their appeal. It is going to be hard, though. Every time I see a Scion I already think that their idea is kind of old.

Article Review on Parental Involvement in Special Education

The purpose of the study The purpose of this study as expressed by Muller is to analyze the role and the importance of parents to their children education and how to handle gender disparities. This study is done so as to know how the parents involve themselves in the children education at the early age or when they are young and during their adolescence (Muller, 1998). It is also to find out whether the parents are the only ones who influence the children special education or teachers to play a crucial role. It is also to find out whether the parents meet the education requirement of a child; such as skills, knowledge, writing skills, simple arithmetics and reading skills (Muller, 1998). Description of participants Parents, teachers and the children are the three participants in the article. The parents are credited for playing a crucial role in imparting knowledge to the children at their early age. They teach them basic skills such as reading, writing and perform simple arithmetics. The teachers too assist the parents in school to identify and build the career of their child at the early ages. Both the parents and the teachers discipline and teach the children good manners and behaviors (Muller, 1998). The research design/ data analysis Research design examines the consistency and what hold the research together. It is a case study of children till the age of adolescence on the role of parents in the children education. Using the case study is appropriate because it provides detailed information on the disable children who are problematic in the learning process. The authors of this article have used the social research so as to know the actual role of the parents in children with special needs. The results from this design method are conclusive and detailed; hence recommendation can easily be made (Muller, 1998). Method of data collection The method used by Muller in this article to collect data was structured questionnaire. Relevant questions were set depending on the information required, then issued to the willing parents to fill. The questionnaires are then assessed and analyzed based on the questions answered. Some of the questions asked include: what are the major challenges facing children with disability and how it affects their education, at what age do the children know how to read, write and to comprehend? The children frequency visit to the library? The data is then analyzed and presented using tables and this will be easier when making a final conclusion (Muller, 1998). Results From the analysis of this article, it shows that the parents play a crucial role in the success of their children in education together with the teachers. The parents are the determinants of the children reading and writing skills and more so to the disabled children. They motive, inspire and encourage at their early age of education. It also shows that, when girls are at adolescence stage, most of them do not perform well in school and the parents have the responsibility of explaining to them what they are undergoing (Muller, 1998). Opportunities for further research There are opportunities which are not stated by Muller in the article. The children should be provided with an extra tuition and coaching during the holiday by the parents after the common school learning programs. The children can be taught the basics about education importance by employing some tutors who are qualified to explain further on what the child has not understood while in school (Muller, 1998). Threats to validity or rival hypotheses This article by Muller lack validity because it is not known whether what the parents teach the children are relevant or not; hence becoming a threat to its validity. The future usefulness of the content is guaranteed because curriculum can change. The validity can be comprised due to lack of consistency by the parents in the children’s education (Muller, 1998). Original insight or criticism The article lacks clear guideline and measurements required to ease comparison and conclusion. Some parents may not meet all the children education requirements due to disparities on methods of teaching. Some parents may take their children’s education with seriousness it deserves. Due to lack of standard curriculum, there is no consistency on different parent’s modes of teaching and what they teach (Muller, 1998). Implications of the findings The findings imply that, children can get the best education from their parents only if they are dedicated and committed. For children to learn and to comprehend many things, parents must teach or educate their children at the early age. The findings show that, the importance of the parents in shaping the behavior and character of their children (Muller, 1998). Reference: Muller, C. (1998). Gender Differences in Parental Involment and Adolescents’ Mathematics Achievement. New York: American Sociological Association.

Social Interaction A Sociological Imagination - 976 Words

Social interaction occurs between all individuals in society and can be studied through the use of the sociological imagination. A sociological imagination allows one to link their everyday activities and situations to society as a whole. I can study my own personal social interactions and the situations I encounter by applying concepts, theories, and perspectives that sociologists have developed for analyzing society and social situations. Although I encounter situations on a day-to-day basis, one notable example would be when I volunteered at the soup kitchen, where I had to control my emotions and play a specific role as part of my volunteer position. During my time at the soup kitchen, I had to utilize emotion management when dealing with people and situations in which it would have been inappropriate for me to react in the way that I would otherwise have wanted to. Emotion management is the act of obeying â€Å"feeling rules† and responding appropriately to situations (Brym and Lie 2012:77). For example, when a homeless man came into the soup kitchen and started to dance and shout instead of calmly sitting down and eating his meal, I courteously asked him to sit down and to try not to disturb the other guests of the establishment. Regardless of any initial emotions of fear, annoyance, or confusion, I had to respond appropriately to the situation by controlling my emotions and engaging in acceptable behavior. I especially had to utilize emotion labor, which is distinguishedShow MoreRelatedThe Concepts Following Sociological Imagination675 Words   |  3 Pages In this essay I’ll be talking about Sociological Imagin ation and the concepts following it and more especially the importance of it. Sociological Imagination is one of the core concepts of Sociology whereas Sociology is all about studying people within the society and what they do. Sociological imagination is all about using one’s mind to see how people are affected by tangible and intangible things around them. Sociological imagination is affected by social forces which are forces that influenceRead MoreSociological Imagination By C. Wright Mills969 Words   |  4 Pages C. Wright Mills defined sociological imagination as the awareness of the relationship between personal experience and the wider society. Understanding and being able to exercise the sociological imagination helps us understand the relationship between the individual and society. Mills focuses on the distinction between personal troubles and public issues. Having sociological imagination is critical for individual people and societies at large to understand. It is important that people areRead MoreAnalysis Of Dalton Conley s You May Ask Yourself 1267 Words   |  6 Pages You May Ask Yourself, defines sociological imagination as, â€Å"The ability to connect the most basic, intimate aspects of an individual’s life to seemingly impersonal and remote historical forces† (Conley 2015, pg. A-11). Sociological Imagination is the idea of being able to step outside of the box, and evaluate society from an alternative point of view. Symbolic Interactionism, norms, socialization, and the idea of understanding yourself vs. understanding the social aspect of society, are some ofRead MoreSociology and Sociological Imagination978 Words   |  4 PagesSocial Issue Sociology and Sociological imagination Sociology is the scientific study of human behavior in a social context that looks the values, attitudes and composition of a given society. Sociology looks at the religious believes, economic aspects, daily activities and political arrangements interact to build a society (Dillon, 2009). The examination of people considering the social forces shaping their attitude and behavior is what C. Wright Mills referred to as sociological imaginationRead MoreThe Sociological Perspective Of Sociology963 Words   |  4 PagesAfter a careful study and a deeper research on an introduction to sociology, I have come to understand that no problem can be solved well enough if one does not have the sociological perspective which is defined as a way of looking at the world through a sociological lens. In fact, there is the need of the lens that will help one to view situations and have the eye to emerge through different views to solve that problem. This mirror has become a doorway that will help one to have a beginner’s mindRead MoreThe Concept Of Sociological Imagination : Connecting History987 Words   |  4 PagesSociology 3 October 2014 The Concept of Sociological Imagination: Connecting History to Biography C. Wright Mills believed that sociological imagination connects history and biography by means of cause and effect. Society and all things surrounding it have a particular interconnection when it comes to change. As a result, one major alteration to everyday society causes human relationships in history to adapt to change. History is altered by man, without human interaction and the exponential growth of historicalRead More Sociological Imagination Essay582 Words   |  3 Pages To understand the term `Sociological Imagination, it is important to identify what Sociology is and what do sociologists study. It is also vital to look at the three basic concerns of the sociological imagination or perspective, which include Social Structure, Social Institutions and Social Processes. Moreover, it is necessary to understand what C. Wright Mills means when he mentions the personal troubles of milieu and the public issues of social structure, and how it helps usRead MoreWhy You Are Performing Heart Surgery Or Scanning Grocery Items For A Living1665 Words   |  7 PagesWhether you are performing heart surgery or scanning grocery items for a living, you have a social location that pinpoints where you land on the social spectrum. A social location is the social position that an individual maintains within their society and is based on certain characteristics believed to be significant by American society. Income and position of employment is not the sole factor in determining a social location. These other factors include, but not limited to, education, job, gender, ageRead MoreSociological Imagination, By C. Wright Mills Essay1611 Words   |  7 PagesI SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION CONCEPTUALIZATION As conceived by C. Wright Mills, sociological imagination is the mental ability to establish intelligible relations among social structure and personal biography that is observing and seeing the impact of society over our private lives. Sociological imagination helps an individual to understand on a much larger scale the meaning and effect of society on of one’s daily life experience. People blame themselves for their own personal problems and they themselvesRead MoreSociology WA11747 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿A) Compare and contrast the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist theoretical approaches to the study of society. How does each approach view society, the individual, social order, and social change? Your textbook analyzes sports in terms of various perspectives. Using the analysis of sports as a model, analyze the role of television from the functional, conflict, and interactionist approaches. The approach one takes to study a particular subject is called a perspective. There are many subjects

Is Stem Cell Research Ethical - 1845 Words

Jessica Chaney Professor June 1, 2015 Project Report Is stem Cell Research Ethical A stem cell is not ready to be a cell, but it has the ability to become different types of cells throughout the human body. There are two types of stem cells: adult stems cells and embryonic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are produced when a newly fertilized egg begins to divide. These stem cells can become any type of cell in the body. (American Medical Association) Adult stem cells – somewhat of an inaccurate name, because they can also be found in infants and children. These are stem cells that reside in already developed tissue. Also these stem cells can act like a repair system and help the human body, dividing regularly into different cells to provide new specialized cells to take the place of those that have died or are lost. Tissues where adult stem cells can be been found include the brain, blood, muscle, skin and bone. Research with adult stem cells has been limited due to the difficulty in growing and differentiating them under laboratory conditions. (Amer ican Medical Association) For years, researchers have been studying the biology of stem cells to figure out how development works and to find new ways of treating humans with health problems. Because stem cells can give way to any tissue found in the body, they provide nearly limitless abilities for medical treatments. Current studies on researching how stem cells may be used to prevent or cure diseases and injuriesShow MoreRelatedIs Stem Cell Research Ethical?1252 Words   |  6 Pages Is Stem Cell Research Ethical? The question that has been asked so many times, is stem cell research ethical? To argue ethics over this topic, one must first know what a stem cell is.Stem Cells are â€Å"cells with the ability to divide for indefinite periods in culture and to give rise to specialized cells† (Stem Cell Basics: Introduction). The National Institutes of Health say that stem cells are distinguished for two different reasons. The first is â€Å"they are unspecialized cells capable of renewingRead MoreIs Embryonic Stem Cell Research Ethical?951 Words   |  4 PagesIs Embryonic Stem Cell Research Ethical? The introduction and expansion of embryonic stem cell research initiated a highly debated ethical topic. Can our society agree to disagree? What are embryonic stem cells? What are stem cells? Is all stem cell research considered abortion? Debates surrounding embryonic stem cell research is further complicated by social standards and needs, religious beliefs, and personal morals. In November of 1998, a group of researchers announced that theyRead MoreEthical Concerns Of Stem Cell Research1759 Words   |  8 Pagesfields within stem cell research and the one under the most scrutiny is embryonic stem cell research. To be able to use their stem cells without killing them has not been developed yet, so many articles on ethical concerns of stem cell research are focused on this specific topic. Many areas of science are treated as unethical, but stem cell research, which is considered the worst,could single-handedly reshape the world as we know it. Description of Stem Cells Unlike the other cells that make upRead MoreEthical Concerns Of Stem Cell Research Essay1986 Words   |  8 Pagesfields within stem cell research and the one under the most scrutiny is embryonic stem cell research. To be able to use their stem cells without killing them has not been developed yet, so many articles on ethical concerns of stem cell research are focused on this specific topic. Many areas of science are treated as unethical, but stem cell research, which is considered the worst,could single-handedly reshape the world as we know it. Description of Stem Cells Unlike the other cells that make upRead MoreEthical Concerns Of Stem Cell Research1508 Words   |  7 PagesEthical Concerns of Stem Cell Research This day in age disease, infection, disorders and mysterious syndromes are more present now than ever. */***You forget to wash your hands after using the restroom? You just spread viruses like E.Coli and put someone s life in danger*/***. But in a world full of diseases that are seemingly becoming harsher and more resistant to conventional treatments, answers to the latest ailments are popping up in the form of miniscule pieces biological tissue called stemRead MoreThe Ethical Implications Of Stem Cell Research2147 Words   |  9 Pages As scientific research broadens its scope to accommodate new technology and theories, controversial issues are debated and inspected, all in hopes of finding answers to long awaited scientific questions. Though science has come across many ethical road blocks set forth by the government, lawyers, and even the community it has continued to move forward in the hopes of encountering creative, constructive, and confounding new ways of creating cures for problems seen by many. Bioethics, as defined byRead MoreEssay on Stem Cell Research: An Ethical Interpretation1946 Words   |  8 Pagessolution to these sicknesses was inside the very people they torment. Stem cell research is undeniably a heated topic in today’s world. Supporters claim it is saving lives, however, from the opposition, it is viewed as murderous. Both sides present a strong argument and have respectable pros and cons. Despite the opposing side’s argument, it is in the United States’ best interest to invest tax money into stem cell research because it has already proved successful in advancing out nation scientificallyRead MoreThe Ethical Debate of Embryonic Stem Cell Research2359 Words   |  10 PagesStem cell research is often at the forefront of heated ethical debates due to its assessment of human life. If stem cell research cannot be ethically defended, then it should not be conducted. â€Å"You cannot defend a study ethically unless the presumed cost is lower than expected benefits. The cost-benefit analysis of scientific research needs to include human/animal discomfort/risks, environmental issues, material costs, etc† which is necessary to support the positive outcome which the research claimsRead MoreEthical Issues Surrounding Stem Cell Research4683 Words   |  19 PagesIntroduction Stem cell research, one of the most exciting and controversial ethical issues in medicine today, continuously makes headlines with new developments. This topic concerns medical professionals, scientists, ethics forums, and even politicians, but many people do not know what to conclude from the controversy surrounding it. Dr. Elizabeth Crouch1, a genetics professor of the Biomedical Science Department of Texas A M University, argues that it is vital that students entering medicineRead MoreHuman Stem Cell Research : Ethical Dilemmas With The Utility Of Embryonic Stem Cells1879 Words   |  8 PagesTrevor McCarthy Human Embryonic Stem Cell (hESC) research possesses ethical dilemmas with the utility of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) derived from human blastocyst, one of the earliest stages of embryonic development. Embryonic stem cell derivation is controversial because there are different opinions and beliefs on when an embryo is deserving of full moral status, equal to the moral respect, rights and treatment to that of a human being. ESCs extracted from a blastocyst will undergo experimentation

Antigone And Ismene Essay Example For Students

Antigone And Ismene Essay Antigone and IsmeneThe personalities of the two sisters; Antigone and Ismene, are asdifferent from one another as tempered steel is from a ball of cotton. One ishard and resistant; the other: pliable, absorbing and soft. Antigone wouldhave been a strong, successful 90s type woman with her liberated and strongattitude towards her femininity, while Ismene seems to be a more dependent1950s style woman. Antigone acts as a free spirit, a defiant individual,while Ismene is content to recognize her own limitations and her inferiority ofbeing a woman. In the Greek tragedy Antigone, by Sophocles; Antigone learns thatKing Creon has refused to give a proper burial for the slain Polyneices,brother of Ismene and Antigone. Infuriated by this injustice, Antigone sharesthe tragic news with Ismene. From her first response, No, I have heardnothing(344). Ismene reveals her passivity and helplessness in the light ofCreons decree. Thus, from the start, Ismene is characterized as traditionallyfeminine, a helpless woman that pays no mind to political affairs. Doubtingthe wisdom of her sisters plan to break the law and bury Polyneices, Ismeneargues:We who are women should not contend with men;we who are weak are ruled by the stronger, so thatwe must obey.(346)Once again Ismenes words clearly state her weak, feminine character andhelplessness within her own dimensions. Antigone, not happy with her sistersresponse chides her sister for not participating in her crime and for herpassivity, saying, Set your own life in order(346). For Antigone, no la wcould stand in the way of her strong consideration of her brothers spirit, noteven the punishment of an early death. Ismene is more practical ; knowing thetask is impossible, she feels the situation to be hopeless. It is a wonder, which of the two sisters are really guilty of thesechronic charges. Of coarse, Antigone acted so quickly, and failed to take theadvice of the moderate sister, Ismene. Instead, going against Creons words,Antigone rashly goes ahead and breaks the law. Antigone is a fool, she mustlearn that such defiance, even when justified, is not conductive to longevity. Although Antigone is foolish, she is also courageous and motivated by hermorals. Proper burial of the dead was, according to the Greeks, prerequisitefor the souls entrance into a permanent home. Therefore, perhaps Ismene isalso foolish for her quick refusal to help Antigone perform the duty ofPolyneices proper burial. Ismene definitely seems hasty in her acceptance ofpersonal weakness. Perhaps in some way, both sisters are guilty of the sametragic sins. Perhaps it is this rashness, more subdued in Ismenes case, thatleads both sisters to their own destruction. To my surprise, there is a strange twist in both sisters charactertowards the end of the play. Antigone makes a rather contrasting statement,Not for my children, had I been a mother, Not for a husband, for his molderingbody, Would i have set myself against the city As I have done(368) Thesewords defy rational explanation. To judge from her attitude towards authorityand law, Antigone would probably take on any task to preserve family dignityand human justice. In Ismenes final words, she abandons her practicalattitudes with a sudden rush of devotion towards the sister she abandoned intime of need. Let me stand beside you and do honor the dead(358). Ismeneheroically takes a stand and shares Antigones crime. The two sisters were crushed by the vindictive Creon, yet they werewinners in spirit, in their determination , they died together, as one. Nobility shall live in their hearts forever.

Psychoactive Drug Testing on Animals

Theories have been suggested towards the psychotic like traits in animals that have been subjected to psychoactive drugs. The proposed theories were accompanied by research experiments to evaluate the effects of psychoactive drug testing in animals. Psycho active drugs refers to drugs that have a significant effect on the behavioral characteristics of animals; both human and non human organisms.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Psychoactive Drug Testing on Animals specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The alterations in behavioral traits of animals due to psychoactive drugs are primarily attributed to the changes in the brain functions or inhibition of certain brain components in animals which ultimately translates to changes in moods, behavior, and consciousness of the animals. Psychoactive drugs are known to bring subjective changes with regard to consciousness, for instance alertness that is observed in animals that have been subjected to psychoactive drugs such as caffeine and cocaine. Apart from psychoactive medications, there are many other substances that are responsible for psychotropic behaviors in animals. Such drug substances include alcohol, cocaine, marijuana, opium, caffeine, heroine and nicotine that are well known to have profound effects on animals such as cats, spiders, rats and other animals (Stahl 159). Psychoactive drugs can be classified primarily into four categories: antipsychotics which are used for treatment of states of agitation; antidepressants which are used for depression treatment; mood stabilizers; anxiolytics which are used to treat anxiety states; physiostimulants which are used to increase the physical performance of the animal’s body; Nootropics which assists in the cognitive functions of the human brain (Spiegel Hossein 135). This research paper attempts to explain the theories, hypotheses and effects of psychoactive drugs on animal drug testing. Theo ry oriented issues on psychoactive drugs Research in the field of psychopharmacology have inferred the probability of utilizing psychoactive drugs using experimental approach for theory oriented objectives: a central research strategy for the physiological psychology is through the administration of psychotic drugs to human and non human organisms (Stahl 145). Theoretical approach is different from the other classical approaches to psychopharmacology such as lesions which attempt to evaluate the effects of different doses (in terms of quantifiability and reversibility) to evaluate the effects of psychoactive drugs on animals. The only feasible method to study the effect of psychoactive substances in animals, for example rats and mice is through experimental administration of the psychoactive drugs into the animals and monitoring behavioral and performance traits (Spiegel Hossein 202).Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your firs t paper with 15% OFF Learn More Questions concerning the relationship between behavioral characteristics and the animal brain may be evaluated through establishing the relationship between the dopaminergic functions, and specific aspects that are vital in determining attention and motivation. Theory oriented approach towards pharmacology emphasized on the relationship between changes in animal behavioral traits and drug actions. It was shown that test subjects with high levels agitation had responded differently to psychoactive drugs compared to those with less anxiety. This difference in response is asserted by the theory of activation; due to the different levels of arousals which is subjective to the levels of and agitation in the animals under test (Spiegel Hossein 205). Hypotheses in psychopharmacology The hypothetical approach towards psychopharmacology was due to the need to have analytical explanations of the physiological and psychological concepts that are relate d to the effects of psychoactive drugs on animals. Early speculations suggested disturbance on the in the brain in terms of biological perspectives, but analytical approaches that were required to approve or disapprove the suggestions were not obtainable; therefore, the rise of hypothetical approaches towards psychopharmacology. Some of the suggested hypotheses are outlined below (Spiegel Hossein 150). The serotonin hypothesis of Schizophrenia This hypothesis was first postulated by Woolley and Shaw; two American biochemists, during 1954. The hypothesis stated that Schizophrenia like traits that are exhibited in animals is primarily due to disturbances during the setoninenergic neurotransmission in the animal brain (Stahl Lerer 160). Schizophrenic traits in animals include rapid changes in the animal personality and moods of the animal test subject. The hypothesis has a number of supporting facts which include: the psychotropic actions of the LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), whic h has the capability to trigger alterations in perceptions, thoughts and also feelings in the animal’s brain. The LSD also has the capabilities to block the activity of serotonin which was proved later in various tests (Stahl Lerer 162). Woolley and Shaw were of the view that serotonin is present in the animal brain and functions as a neurotransmitter, it was therefore speculated the psychotropic effects in animals associated with LSD’s ability to resist the effects of the serotonin on the animal brain; therefore it was reached that disturbances in the serotoninergic neurotransmission is primarily responsible for psychotropic disorders in the animal test subjects (Stahl Lerer 162).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Psychoactive Drug Testing on Animals specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Despite of the enough scientific evidence and appeal, the serotonin hypothesis of Schizophrenia was soon refuted due to its conflict psychopathological and pharmacology research finding that revealed that the psychotic symptoms in animal test subjects that associated with LSD differ from the typical symptoms that are associated schizophrenia. Although this hypothesis was refuted fast, it was important in two aspects: it facilitated the proposition of serotonin assay methods and provided proof that serotonin is not present in the brain, it also served as a prototype for the other forthcoming hypotheses (Stahl Lerer 163). The dopamine Hypotheses of Schizophrenia The drawback of the serotonin hypothesis of schizophrenia was that it lacked direct correlation with the properties associated with psychoactive drugs. The context of dopamine hypothesis is different because all known psychoactive substances have an inhibitory effect in the dopaminergic neurons in the animal brain, although they differ with respect to pharmacological side effects on humans. The hypothesis assumes that the antipsychotic nat ure of chlorpromazine and other similar neuropletics is significantly determined by their cataleptic potential; their capability to induce catalepsy in animals. This hypothesis lost its credibility during the discovery that thiorodazine, which is a similar neuropletic to chlorpromazine had little effects (Stahl Lerer 155). Despite the critic that followed the hypothesis, there were a number of adjustments to the dopamine hypothesis on schizophrenia. The argument of the hypothesis that neuropletics act through blocking of the post synaptic dopamine receptors is still consistent with majority of pharmacological research observations (Stahl Lerer 155). The catecholamine hypothesis of Depression The hypothesis was first suggested during 1965 by J. Schildkraut. The hypothesis states that majority of depression like behavior in animals are due to part or total deficiency of catecholamine, which functions at the receptor sites in the animal brain. The hypothesis was consistent with the c linical and pharmacological research findings (Schatzberg Nemerof 199). The catecholamine hypothesis can be attributed for the bringing together of several pharmacological research findings but contradicted many clinical observations, especially the delay on the onset of action of the anti depressant drugs on animal test subjects. The same applies to the serotonin hypothesis (Stahl Lerer 124).Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The serotonin hypothesis of depression The serotonin hypothesis of depression states that majority of depression traits in animals are due to absolute deficiency of serotonin in some of the parts of the brain. A number of arguments have been suggested to support the hypothesis (Schatzberg Nemerof 200). There is also a number of pharmacological finding that support the serotonin and catecholamine hypothesis of depression. Depressions like traits in animals are not a single disorder; there are depressions that related to the serotonin deficiency and on a similar account catecholamine deficiency (Schatzberg Nemerof 205). Effects of psychoactive drugs The effects of psychoactive drugs on animals can be viewed from the following perspectives: drug oriented, which is primarily defined by the compound composition of the psychoactive drug; methodology oriented, which is defined by the sensitivity of the animal under the drug test to the psychoactive drugs; theory oriented, which described by analysis of the brain behavior of the animal under test due to the psychoactive drug use; practical oriented which describes the effects of psychoactive drugs on everyday activities (Schatzberg Nemerof 205). There are a number of effects associated with psychoactive drug uses which are outlined below according the results of psychoactive drug testing on animals. Psychoactive drugs usually have strong effects on animals. Some of the psychoactive drugs that significantly affect animals in different ways include: caffeine, LSD, marijuana and many more. Majority of Pharmacological research concerning the effects of psychoactive drugs reported that at small concentrations, psychoactive drugs have an effect on the feeding behaviors of insects and molluscs. At high concentration, it is reported that psychoactive drugs could cause death on the test subjects (Schatzberg Nemerof 206). Psychotic drugs usually have notable effects on the animal test subjects; these effects can be describe d principally as being subjective effects. In addition, there are effects that may be noticed by the observer, such as performance deterioration. Such effects are generally termed behavioral effects. A study on spiders revealed that spiders constructed more disordered webs after being subjected to psychoactive drugs than when they have not been subjected to psychoactive drugs (Schatzberg Nemerof 208). A research by a German pharmacologist, P. N Witt on the effects of psychotic drugs on spiders revealed that the shape and size of the webs constructed by the spiders varied significantly when the spiders were subjected to the psychotic drugs. At smaller amounts of caffeine, the webs were a little regular with uniform radii. At higher doses of about 100 microgram per spider, the webs were much more disoriented and irregular (Schatzberg Nemerof 205). This implies that psychoactive drugs are responsible performance deterioration in animals such as spiders. It is widely believed that oth er plants developed psychoactive substances in their leaves in order to serve as a protection mechanism against the harmful animals such as spiders. Another category of psychoactive drug use effect is the neurophysiological effects which primarily affect the functionality of the animal brain. This is primarily responsible for observations of hyperactivity and tremor in animal test subjects. Various parameters are used to measure the extent of the effects of the psychotic drugs on animal test subjects (Schatzberg Nemerof 197). During 1984, a pharmacologist named Nathanson carried our research on the effects of psycho stimulants on arthropods and molluscs. Cats that were subjected to higher doses of caffeine revealed higher levels of hyperactivity; as evidenced through licking of their cheeks, rolling over the ground and to some extent sexual arousal (Stahl 156). Another effect that is associated with the testing of psychoactive drugs on animals is the alterations in the behavioral t raits of the animal test subject. Psychotic drugs have reported increased effects on the alterations of animals’ behavior. This is due to the effects of the drugs on the way the brain functions. Any change in the dopamine levels in the animal test subject’s brain is sufficient enough to induce behavioral change in the test subjects (Stahl 198). Behavioral pharmacology research studies have indicated that rats and mice that have been subjected to small doses of cocaine have higher response rates than ordinary rats and mice. Conclusion Psychoactive drugs use is bound to cause harmful effects on the animal test subjects. These psychological effects are primarily attributed due to alterations in the brain functionality as the above theories and hypotheses suggests; this explicitly explains the hyperactivity and tremor behavior in animals that have been subjected to psychoactive drugs. Some of the common physiological effects that are associated with the use of psychoactive drugs include mood alterations, consciousness and drowsiness, which are primarily due to impairing the functionality of the brain. All the hypotheses are drawn from one perspective; a given substance is antagonistic towards the brain activity and that is the underlying principle that explains the nature of psychoactive drugs (Spiegel Hossein 205). Works Cited Schatzberg, Alan F. and Nemeroff B. Charles. Essentials of clinical psychopharmacology. Washington, D.C: American Psychiatric Pub, 2006. Print. Spiegel, Renà © and Hossein Fatemi. Psychopharmacology: an introduction. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 2003. Print. Stahl, Stephen. Stahl’s essential psychopharmacology: neuroscientific basis and practical applications. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Print. Stahl, Stephen and Lerer ,Bernard. Evidence-based psychopharmacology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Print. This essay on Psychoactive Drug Testing on Animals was written and submitted by user Al1ya to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.